Table 2 The effect of prebiotics on rotavirus infection in the in vivo and in vitro studies
Prebiotics | Dose and duration | Objects | Rotavirus treatment | Effects of prebiotics | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Human milk oligosaccharides, or a mixture (short-chain galacto-oligosaccharides and long-chain fructo-oligosaccharides (9:1)) | Supplementing in formula; 4 g/L, 14 d | Newborn pigs | On d 10, 1 mL porcine rotavirus strain OSU (P9[7], g5, 5 × 106 FFU) | Human milk oligosaccharides or the mixture shortened the duration of rotavirus-induced diarrhea, and modulated gut microflora and immune response | |
A mixture of short-chain galacto-oligosaccharides, long-chain fructo-oligosaccharides, and pectin-derived acidic oligosaccharides (76.5: 8.5: 15) | Supplementing in formula; 0.8 g/100 g body weight daily, 14 or 21 d | 3-day-old Lewis rats | On d 5, simian rotavirus (SA-11, 2 × 108 TCID50/rat) | The mixture improved diarrhea and immunity in rotavirus-infected mice | [136] |
2'-fucosyllactose, a mixture of short-chain galacto-oligosaccharides and long-chain fructo-oligosaccharides (9:1), and their combination | Supplementing in formula; 2´-fucosyllactose, 0.2 g/100 g body weight daily; a mixture of short-chain galacto-oligosaccharides and long-chain fructo-oligosaccharides, 0.8 g/100 g body weight daily; 7 d | Newborn Lewis rats | On d 5, simian rotavirus (SA-11, 4 × 108 TCID50/rat) | All interventions showed reduction in clinical variables of rotavirus-induced diarrhea, and could promote the intestinal maturation and immune responses | |
2'-Fucosyllactose | Supplementing in formula; 0.2 g/100 g body weight daily, 8 d | Newborn Lewis rats | On d 5, simian rotavirus (SA-11, 4 × 108 TCID50/rat) | 2'-Fucosyllactose alleviated diarrhea in rotavirus-infected rats | [152] |
Lactose | Supplementing in diets; 4% or 6%, 20 d | 21-day-old weaned pigs | On d 15, 5Â mL porcine rotavirus (OSU, 106 TCID50/mL) | Lactose alleviated the negative effects of rotavirus on growth, diarrhea, nutrient utilization, intestinal barrier function and immunity improvement | [28] |
Galacto-oligosaccharides | Supplementing in diets; 30Â g/d, 7 d before farrowing | Sows | The vaccines for porcine rotavirus (OSU 6, 2 weeks prior to farrowing) rotavirus infection in farms | Galacto-oligosaccharides increased rotavirus specific IgG and IgA in sow colostrum, and thereby reduced neonatal rotavirus infection | [149] |
Galacto-oligosaccharides | Oral infusion; 0.8 g/100 g of body weight daily, 28 d | Lewis rats | On d 6, simian rotavirus (SA11, 2 × 108 TCID50) On d 17, mice rotavirus (EDIM, 1.3 × 108 TCID50) | Galacto-oligosaccharides reduced the incidence and severity of rotavirus-associated diarrhea | [150] |
Lentinan | Supplementing in diets; 84Â mg/kg, 19 d | 21-day-old weaned pigs | On d 15, 4Â mL porcine rotavirus (OSU, 106 TCID50/mL) | Lentinan reduced rotavirus-induced diarrhea, and also decreased the effects of rotavirus on gut health | [31] |
Lentinan | In vivo: supplementing in diets; 84 mg/kg, 19 d In vitro: 24 mg/L, 20 h before rotavirus infection and 3 d after rotavirus infection | 21-day-old weaned pigs IPEC-J2 cell | In vivo: On d 15, 4 mL porcine rotavirus (OSU, 106 TCID50/mL) In vitro: porcine rotavirus (OSU, MOI = 3), 1 h | Lentinan alleviated the effects of rotavirus on growth performance, diarrhea and intestinal immunity | [70] |
Polysaccharides from Portulaca oleracea L | Before rotavirus infection, 400 μg/mL 6 h; After rotavirus infection, 400 μg/mL 24 h | IPEC-J2 cell | Porcine rotavirus ( MOI = 2), 1 h | The polysaccharides reduced the expression of VP6, and viral titers in IPEC-J2 cells | [154] |
β-glucan | Oral infusion; 50 mg/kg body weight daily, 5 d | Piglets (0–2 weeks) | Natural infection | β-glucan improved the health condition and reduced the piglet mortality from rotavirus associated diarrhea | [148] |
Stevioside, and/or sophora flavescens extract | Oral infusion; 4, 8 and 12 g stevioside, 400, 800 and 1,600 mg sophora flavescens extract, 4 times daily, d 2–8 | 3-day-old gnotobiotic pigs | On day 1, 3 mL porcine rotavirus (G5P[7], 5 × 105 PFU/mL) | Stevioside had no effect on enteritis, but sophora flavescens extract partially improved enteritis. And the combination of stevioside and sophora flavescens extract reduced diarrhea, and improved small bowel lesion scores and fecal virus excretion | [155] |
Resveratrol | Supplementing in diets; 3, 10 and 30 mg/kg, 21 d | 28-day-old pigs | On d 22, 4 mL porcine rotavirus (AV59, 1 × 106 TCID50/mL) | Resveratrol relieved diarrhea caused by rotavirus infection, reduced inflammation, and maintained immune function | [156] |
Resveratrol | Oral infusion; 10 and 20 mg/kg body weight, d 1–5 | 3–5-day-old BALB/c mice | On d 1, 30 μL simian rotavirus (SA-11) | Resveratrol significantly reduced the severity of diarrhea, reduced viral titers, and alleviated the associated symptoms in rotavirus-infected mice | [59] |
Resveratrol dimer trans-ε-viniferin | Oral infusion; 2.27 μg, three times daily, d 2–4 | 4–7-day- old C57BL/6 mice | On d 1, 25 μL, simian rotavirus (SA-11, 1.2 × 107 PFU/mL) | Resveratrol dimer trans-ε-viniferin inhibited rotavirus-induced diarrhea in mice | [157] |
Quercetin | Oral infusion; 10 mg/kg body weight, d 1–2 after virus inoculation | 5-day-old BALB/c mice | On d 5, human rotavirus (EW, 107 PFU) and simian rotavirus (SA11, 107 PFU) | Quercetin decreased the expression of viral proteins and viral titers in the small intestine of rotavirus-infected mice | [158] |
Baicalin | Oral infusion; 0.075, 0.15 and 0.3 mg/g body weight, d 1–3 | 4-day-old Kunming mice | On d 1, 200 μL, simian rotavirus (SA-11, 104.64 TCID50/mL) | Baicalin can alleviate weight loss and reduce the incidence of diarrhea in the rotavirus-infected mice | [159] |
Genipin | Oral infusion; 100 μmol/L, d 1–5 | Newborn BALB/c mice | On d 5, 10 μL, mice rotavirus (EDIM, 2 × 107 FFU) | Genipin shortened diarrhea duration and fecal viral shedding, as well as a reduction in damage to the intestinal epithelium of rotavirus-infected mice | [160] |
Ziyuglycoside II | Oral infusion; 3, 6 and 9 μmol/L, d 1–7 | 3-day-old BALB/c mice | On d 1, 25 μL, simian rotavirus (SA-11) | The administration of Ziyuglycoside II improved diarrhea symptoms, and reduced diarrhea scores in the rotavirus-infected mice | [161] |
Loureirin C extracted from Dracaena cochinchinensis S.C. Chen | Oral infusion; 2.72 μg, d 1–3 | 3-day-old ICR mice | On d 1, 25 μL simian rotavirus (SA-11, 1.2 × 107 PFU/mL) | Loureirin C reduced fecal water content, intestinal motility rate, and smooth muscle contraction in rotavirus-infected mice | [162] |
Ginsenoside-Rb2 and 20(S)-Ginsenoside-Rg3 from Korean Red Ginseng | Oral infusion; 75 mg/kg body weight, d 7–9 | Newborn BALB/c mice | On d 10, simian rotavirus (SA-11, 1.5 × 106 to 1.5 × 107 PFU/mouse) | Ginsenoside reduced viral titers in the gut of rotavirus-infected mice | [163] |
Deoxyshikonin | Intraperitoneally injecting, 5 and 10Â mg/kg body weight, d 2 | 4-day-old BALB/c mice | On d 1, human rotavirus (WA) and simian rotavirus (SA-11) | Deoxyshikonin had anti-rotavirus function, increased survival and body weight, reduced diarrhea score in the rotavirus-infected mice | [164] |
Valeriana jatamansi Jones extracts | Oral infusion; 10, 20 and 30 mg/kg body weight, d 1–14 | 3-day-old BALB/c mice | On d 1, 20μL, simian rotavirus (SA-11) | Valeriana jatamansi Jones extracts inhibited rotavirus-induced diarrhea in mice | [165] |
Red wine extract | Oral infusion; 20 μL, twice daily, d 1–3 | Newborn C57/BL6 mice | On d 1, 30 μL, simian rotavirus (SA-11, 1.2 × 107 PFU/mL) | Red wine extract prevents rotavirus-induced diarrhea by inhibiting intestinal fluid secretion in mice | [166] |
Glycyrrhiza uralensis extract | Supplementing in artificial milk; 100, 200 and 400 mg/mL, d 5–11 | Newborn pigs | On d 3, 3 mL, porcine rotavirus (K85, 5 × 105 FFU/mL) | Glycyrrhiza uralensis extract cured rotavirus-induced diarrhea, and improved small bowel lesion scores and fecal viral shedding in pigs | [167] |
Saponin extracted from Quillaja saponaria Molina | Oral infusion; 0–0.5 mg/mouse, d 1–7 | Newborn BALB/c mice | On d 3–7, rhesus rotavirus (ATCC VR-954, 50, 500, 5,000 and 50,000 FFU, respectively) | Saponin relieved the severity and duration of diarrhea caused by rotavirus in mice | [168] |
Qiwei Baizhu powder | Oral infusion; 150 mL/kg body weight, d 3–5 | Newborn NIH mice | On d 2, 50 μL, Human rotavirus (WA, 4 × 108 PFU/mL) | Qiwei Baizhu powder is effective to rotavirus-induced gastroenteritis in neonatal NIH mice | [169] |
Pectic oligosaccharide | Supplementing in diets; 200Â mg/kg, 18 d | 21-day-old weaned pigs | On d 15, 4Â mL porcine rotavirus (OSU, 106 TCID50/mL) | Pectic oligosaccharide improved the growth performance, diarrhea severity, gut health, immune function and nutrient utilization of rotavirus-challenged pigs | |
Macleaya cordata extracts | Oral infusion; 1, 2 and 4 mg/kg body weight, d 1–7 | 3-day-old BALB/c mice | On d 3, 30 µL, simian rotavirus (SA-11, 4 × 107 FFU/mL) | Macleaya cordata extracts were effective to improve rotavirus-induced diarrhea in a dose-dependent manner by decreasing viral RNA levels | [170] |